This article is a continuation of those devoted in part or in whole to 18th century wigmakers. In the last few years, with my boyfriend Michel Thévenin (historian and author of the blog Tranchées et Tricornes) we have twice given a conference on men's hairstyle in the 18th century, presentation mainly based on L'art du Perruquier by M. de Garsault from 1767.
For more information on the practice rights of wigmakers, please visit this article.
My other article dedicated to wigmakers in New France lists of wigmakers appearing in the Quebec and Montreal paper declarations of 1763 and 1764 in "the Canada Affair".
Our first conference took place in the vaults of the Palais de l'Intendant in August 2018 as part of the Rendez-vous d'Histoire de Québec. The second took place last year (2019) at the Musée de la civilisation as part of the New France Festival.
The purpose of this article is to try to determine if the wig makers of New France made their wigs. As explained in detail in the article on the rights of practicing wigmakers, the manufacture of the wig is not the only activity that is reserved for wigmakers. The questions of supply of particular materials (silk gauze, human hair, forms of wood ...) with the distance of New France compared to the metropolis are still to be clarified. It is possible that the wig makers of New France were only retyping the wigs that the aristocracy bought directly in France without entirely manufacturing them.
Is it possible to determine beyond all doubt that the wig makers of New France manufactured the wigs themselves that they sold?
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| A wig shop Artist: Jeremias Snoek 1775 Museum of London |
My hope was to find in BANQ's digitized documents a trial report against a wigmaker for having manufactured a wig of bad quality.
From my research in the digital archives of BANQ (Bibliothèque et Archives Nationales du Québec), I have uncovered a dozen documents that allow us to understand the world of wigs in New France.
The quotes enclosed in quotes are BANQ's summaries and not a literal transcript of the archives. By clicking on the underlined title, you will find the digitized archives.
1. A merchant wig maker buys part of the current ''Côte-Nord'' , July 10, 1709
Contrat de vente par Jean-Baptiste Bissot, sieur de Vincennes, officier dans les troupes du détachement de la Marine, demeurant à Québec, fils du sieur François Bissot, sieur de la Rivière (LaRivière), et de damoiselle Marie Couillard, au sieur François Brissonnet (Bissonnet), marchand perruquier de Québec, d'une partie de remplacement donnant sis sur le fleuve Saint-Laurent, à prendre depuis l'île aux Oeufs les Blancs-Sablons avec toutes les îles Mingan et les autres îles îles dans ladite étendue (Notaire Michel Lepailleur de LaFerté)
''Sales contract by Jean-Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, officer in the troops of the Navy detachment, living in Quebec, son of Sieur François Bissot, Sieur de la Rivière (LaRivière), and Damoiselle Marie Couillard, at sieur François Brissonnet (Bissonnet), wig merchant from Quebec, a replacement part overlooking the St. Lawrence River, to be taken from Ile aux Oeufs les Blancs-Sablons with all the Mingan and other islands in said area (Notary Michel Lepailleur de LaFerté) ''
This document touched me personally because I was born on the Côte-Nord territory. If the toponymy has remained the same until today, Ile aux Oeufs is located opposite the current Port-Cartier, the Mingan Islands are opposite Havre-St-Pierre and Blanc-Sablon is the neighboring municipality at Labrador, today representing approximately 900 km of coastline (889 km according to Google Maps to be exact). The North Shore had been nicknamed by Jacques Cartier the land of Cain. In the biblical account of the Book of Genesis, Cain is the cursed son of Adam (Adam and Eve) to have killed his brother Abel by jealousy. The curse is that he could no longer harvest, he who was a gardener and a farmer. The Côte-Nord forest is made up of conifers growing on rocky soil, not very suitable for cereal farming, hence this nickname.
This document allows us to deduce that a wig merchant can save enough to buy a huge territory although very inhospitable. I think it was more his job as a merchant that saved him as much money as that of a wig maker, but I wanted to share it. I have not done any in-depth research, but I do not believe that François Brissonnet, wig merchant, has occupied and exploited his land.
2. A wig maker is asked to hand over a wig that had been entrusted to be shrunk, July 7, 1745
À la requête de Pierre Laborde, navigateur, domicilié rue Champlain à Québec, assignation de Charles Couet (Cauhet), perruquier de Québec, demeurant sur la rue du Sault-au-Matelot, afin qu'il se remette au perruque donné à rétrécir , aux offres de payer 45 sols pour l'ouvrage fait
'' At the request of Pierre Laborde, navigator, domiciled on rue Champlain in Québec, summons by Charles Couet (Cauhet), Québec wig maker, residing on rue du Sault-au-Matelot, so that he could use the wig given to shrink, to offers to pay 45 floors for the work done ''
This document supports the hypothesis of wigmakers as wig repairers.
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| Detail of Planche I- Wigmaker cabinet From: Art du Perruquier François-Alexandre-Pierre de Garsault 1767 Source: Gallica |
À la requête de Charles Couet (Cauhet), perruquier de Québec, domicilié rue du Sault-au-Matelot, assignation de Pierre Laborde, navigateur, demeurant sur la rue Champlain à Québec, afin qu'il soit payé 2 livres et 5 sols pour la réparation d'une perruque, qu'il a abandonné depuis un an, ou que la Cour permette audit Couet de vendre ladite perruque pour récupérer son argent
''At the request of Charles Couet (Cauhet), Quebec wig maker, domiciled on rue du Sault-au-Matelot, summons by Pierre Laborde, navigator, residing on rue Champlain in Quebec, so that he could be paid 2 livres and 5 sols for the repair of a wig, which he has abandoned for a year, or for the Court to allow the Couet to sell the wig to recover his money ''
Rebound in the case of the shrinking of the wig of the navigator Pierre Laborde!
Small monetary reminder
According to the exhibition `` Paris en vitrine, les boutiques au 18ième siècle'' of the Stewart Museum in 2018, a livre is worth 20 sols. The daily salary in the middle of the eighteenth century in Paris, for about eleven hours of work, of a cabinetmaker's carpenter is 10 sols , a roofer 15 sols and a laborer 20 sols.
We can deduce that this wig repair costs one to two days of work for a skilled worker. From there, I extrapolate a little by thinking that the shrinking of this wig could represent to the wig maker Charles Couet one to two days of work.
As for the dispute between Pierre Laborde and the wig maker, Charles Couet, I see the ease of the time to pass from one monetary value to another. In the first text, we speak of 45 floors and in the second of 2 books and 5 floors. It is indeed the same amount requested!
4. A wig-maker soldier requests payment for two wigs, June 6, 1731
Procès entre Jacques Neveu, soldat, perruquier de métier, demandeur, et [Bertin dit Laronde?], Navigateur, défendeur, pour le paiement de perruquesCe dossier de matière est composé des pièces suivantes: la requête de Jacques Neveu pour faire assigner à comparer le navigateur [Laronde?] Pour payer au demandeur ce qui reste sur un compte pour la fourniture de deux perruques, soit 30 livres; la permission de faire approcher les parties et de faire saisir ce que le demandeur pourra trouver; et la signification ainsi que l'assignation à comparaître
'' Trial between Jacques Neveu, soldier, professional wig maker, plaintiff, and [Bertin dit Laronde?], Navigator, defendant, for the payment of wigs
This material file is composed of the following documents: Jacques Neveu's request to make appear the navigator [Laronde?] To pay the applicant what remains on an account for the supply of two wigs, ie 30 livres; permission to approach the parties and seize what the plaintiff can find; and the service as well as the summons to appear ''
In this document, the main profession of the wig maker Jacques Neveu is a soldier. It was not uncommon for soldiers sent to the colony to exercise a trade before enlisting in the army. Most of their motive was job security. Indeed, the profession of soldier, even if it exposes to the direct consequences of the war, assures the soldier of being housed, fed and clothed for the duration of the contract in exchange for his services. It is not uncommon to see soldiers exercising other trades in New France: carpenter, blacksmith, baker, wig maker ...
The wigmaker Neveu asks to finish paying an account for two wigs. My skills in paleography are limited, but I find that 10 livres were given to the wig maker when the wigs were ordered. Which would make us 40 livres for 2 wigs, or 800 sols.
Suppose our friend wig maker works at 20 sols a day, it would take him 20 days to make a wig. Note that in this calculation, the material costs are not taken into account.
5. A customer wants his wig or be reimbursed for his deposit of 20 livres, July 22, 1734
À la requête du sieur Henri Louineau (Luineau), navigateur demeurant rue Sous-le-Fort à Québec, assignation du sieur Baria, maître perruquier demeurant à Québec, afin qu'il livre au demandeur une perruque que celui-ci lui soit donné à faire, ou qu'il lui-même paie la somme de 20 livres, et le demandeur offrant de payer à Baria la façon [fabrication] de ladite pérruque, suivant le marché conclu précédemment, avec dépens
''At the request of Mr. Henri Louineau (Luineau), navigator living on rue Sous-le-Fort in Quebec, summons by Mr. Baria, master wig maker living in Quebec, to have the wig be delivered to the applicant given to do, or that he himself pays the sum of 20 pounds, and the plaintiff offering to pay to Baria the way [manufacture] of the said wig, according to the contract concluded previously, with costs ''
The navigator Henri Louineau has already paid the wigmaker 20 livres and he offers to pay it the way (the archivists have translated by manufacturing, I see it more as the styling of the wig but I can be wrong). In this way, the customer would have paid for the manufacture of the wig but it is not arranged, accommodated yet and the customer offers to the wig maker Baria to pay this part of the market to receive a wig to his liking.
6. A wig maker wants to be reimbursed for a beard and wig made to a man before he died, November 22, 1729
Sentence dans le procès de Charles Prieur, maître perruquier à Québec, contre Henri Hiché, tuteur du mineur Desrosiers (Desguerrois dit Desrosiers), petit-fils de maître Florent de La Cetière (Lacetière) et de Jeanne Pluchon, demandeur demandeur 35 livres et 11 sols pour une perruque et une barbe achetées par ledit défunt de La Cetière, et le tribunal déclarant qu'il y a prescription dans la demande, et renvoyé l'action au demandeur, avec dépens
'' Sentencing in the trial of Charles Prieur, master wig maker in Quebec, against Henri Hiché, tutor of the miner Desrosiers (Desguerrois dit Desrosiers), grandson of master Florent de La Cetière (Lacetière) and Jeanne Pluchon, plaintiff plaintiff 35 livres and 11 sols for a wig and a beard purchased by the said deceased from La Cetière, and the court declaring that there is prescription in the request, and remitted the action to the claimant, with costs ''
What I find interesting here is the confirmation that the wig makers in New France shave the beard, as M. de Garsault describes it in his Art du perruquier published in 1767. I believe that the beard bought from the wig maker in this document is not a false one because the fashion of the period is a face freshly shaved. Also, the expression to make the beard means to shave the beard, it is the same with the expression to make the head. In the eighteenth century, there were two trades which included the function of barber: barbers-wigmakers who were less known, and barbers-surgeons.
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| Chez le perruquier 1861 Artiste: Pierre Théodore Nicolas Maillot Source: Artnet |
7.A wig maker wants to be paid for a wig delivered to a passing merchant, July 2, 1742
À la requête du sieur Bonnet, perruquier, domicilié rue Sous-le-Fort à Québec, assignation du sieur Bulteau, marchand demeurant à Contre-Coeur, actuellement domicilié chez le sieur Badeau, rue Saint-Jean à Québec, afin qu'il paie les 6 livres qui restent de la somme de 12 livres due pour l'achat d'une perruque neuve, avec dépens
''At the request of Mr. Bonnet, wig maker, domiciled rue Sous-le-Fort in Quebec, summons of Mr. Bulteau, merchant living in Contre-Coeur, currently domiciled with Mr. Badeau, rue Saint-Jean in Quebec, so that he pays the remaining 6 livres of the amount of 12 livres due for the purchase of a new wig, with costs ''
A 12 pound wig is the most `` affordable '' figure in terms of wigs that I found in this research. A price that perhaps reflects a simpler style for said wig. If we trust the profession of the customer, merchant, it is intended for the bourgeois class. But perhaps also that the merchant wanted to buy a cheaper wig to resell it to Contre-Coeur, who knows?
8. A wig maker wants to be paid for a wig delivered to a baker, February 1, 1751
À la requête du sieur Prieur, maître perruquier de Québec, demeurant rue du Sault-au-Matelot, assignation du sieur Dumas, boulanger, domicilié chez le sieur Chalou, maître boulanger, rue du Sault-au-Matelot, afin qu'il paie au demandeur 12 livres qu'il doit pour une perruque qu'il lui vend et livrée, avec dépens
''At the request of Sieur Prieur, master wigmaker from Quebec, living on rue du Sault-au-Matelot, summons by Sieur Dumas, baker, domiciled with sieur Chalou, master baker, rue du Sault-au-Matelot, so that he pays the plaintiff 12 livres he owes for a wig he sells and delivers to him, with costs ''
Again, 12 livres for a wig that has already been delivered to the customer. A baker, a bread craftsman. I wonder whether bakers are considered bourgeois or locals.
9. A customer requests a special wig, February 13, 1744
Requête entre le sieur Mauger Gadois (Gadois dit Mauger), demeurant à Montréal, stipulant par le sieur Laguerche (Laguerce) fils, voyageur, demeurant en cette charge de son pouvoir daté à Montréal le 20 janvier 1744, comparant par ledit Laguerche, demandeur, contre Pierre Denoyer (Desnoyers), maître perruquier, défendeur; pour lui livrer une perruque à la cavalière de cheveux blonds bien faits, qui sera estimée par 2 maîtres perruquiers et à payer la somme de 10 livres et 15 sols pour un billet; désaccord entre les parties, le défendeur est condamné à livrer 3 perruques et aux dépens liquidés à 10 sols
'' Request between Mr. Mauger Gadois (Gadois dit Mauger), residing in Montreal, stipulating by Mr. Laguerche (Laguerce) son, traveler, residing in this office of his power dated in Montreal on January 20, 1744, appearing by the said Laguerche, plaintiff, against Pierre Denoyer (Desnoyers), master wig maker, defendant; to deliver a wig à la cavalière of well-made blond hair, which will be estimated by 2 master wigmakers and to pay the sum of 10 livres and 15 sols for a ticket; disagreement between the parties, the defendant is ordered to deliver 3 wigs and the costs paid to 10 sols ''
This document is one of the few that specifies the type of wig requested: a blonde hair wig à la cavalière (some translation of the 18th century called it campain wig) I redid an overview of the Art of the wig maker of Mr. de Garsault to know if he mentions this type of wig, unfortunately I found nothing. This is the problem with certain words in the lexical field of old fashion, some can have several meanings (See my articles on "pet-in-the-air" and that on "cadenette") which seem clear and defined at first sight but quickly become more complex during more extensive research.
Thanks to search engines, I found a description of the à la cavalière wig in a 1723 work entitled `` Le Mentor moderne, ou Discours sur les moeurs du siècle. Volume 3 ''. In this section, the authors compare the dress style with the poetic style.
Certaines gens, qui veulent briller que par la beauté de leur visage, consacre tout leur génie dans la Perruque, qui d'ordinaire est comme l'enseigne est comme l'enseignement des sentiments du coeur, & de la profession de ceux, qui la portent. La perruque carrée, qui jette des ondes partagées régulièrement sur les deux côtez (sic) de la poitrine marque un Jurisconsulte ou un Politique. La perruque cavalière, tressée par derrière avec des rubans noirs, caractérise un homme de guerre, ou du moins une âme fière et belliqueuse; et celui qui charge d'une quantité prodigieuse de cheveux blonds qui lui descendent jusqu'à la ceinture, semble déclarer par là qu'il ne songe guére (sic) à embellir le dedans de sa tête. C'est encore d'une manière exactement semblable que chaque poëte (sic) a son goût, & son stile (sic) qui le caractérisent (sic) et qui font voir, souvent malgré lui, son humeur, & son naturel. - pages 197-198-
'' Some people, who want to shine only by the beauty of their face, devote all their genius in the Wig, which usually is like the sign is like the teaching of the feelings of the heart, & of the profession of those, who wear it. The square wig, which sends waves shared regularly on the two sides of the chest marks a Jurisconsult or a Politician. The à la cavalière wig, braided from behind with black ribbons, characterizes a man of war, or at least a proud and bellicose soul; and the one who loads a prodigious quantity of blond hair which goes down to his belt, seems to declare by that that he does not dream to embellish the inside of his head. It is also in an exactly similar way that each poet has his taste, & his style which characterize him and which show, often in spite of himself, his mood, & his naturalness. '' pages 197-198
With this definition, the cavalier wig seems to be provided with a cadenette as I defined it in my article on the subject, ie a braid wrapped in a black ribbon, relating to the military world.
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Detail of a cadenette
From: Le repas de chasse
Artist: François Boucher
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10. A wigmaker client wants to be reimbursed for the failure to deliver a wig with boudins, January 27, 1747
À la requête de Guillaume Deguise dit Flamand, demeurant sur la rue Saint-Jean à Québec, signification d'un accord au sieur Lajoie, perruquier de Québec, et assignation à lui donné afin qu'il paie au demandeur 18 livres comme prix d ' une perruque à boudins payée mais non livrée, avec dépens
'' At the request of Guillaume Deguise dit Flamand, residing on rue Saint-Jean in Québec, service of an agreement with Sieur Lajoie, Québec wig maker, and summons given to him so that he pays the plaintiff 18 livres as a price of a wig with boudins paid but not delivered, with costs ''
With the previous document, they are the only ones that describe a little the type of wig making dispute. What I found as boudins associated with a wig are described in the Methodical Encyclopedia. Mechanical Arts and Crafts, Tome 6 by Jacques Lacombe. See the following image:
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| Detail of the planck 8 Fig 3 et 4: Inside and outside the square wig A, the boudin Encyclopédie méthodique. Arts et Métiers mécaniques Tome 6 Jacques Lacombe 1782-1791 Source: Gallica |
Unfortunately for Guillaume Deguise dit Flamand, his black wig was not delivered ...
11. Two men in conflict for the sale of 7 pounds and 4 ounces of hair, at the rate of 20 livres per pound, November 22, 1723
Arrêt qui déclare Noël Rousseau non recevable en son appel dans son instance avec François Briconnet au sujet de 7 livres 4 onces de cheveux, à raison de 20 livres le livre, vendu par Briçonnet (Brissonnet) à Rousseau
'' Judgment declaring Noël Rousseau inadmissible in his appeal in his proceeding with François Briconnet regarding 7 pounds 4 ounces of hair, at the rate of 20 livres per pounds, sold by Briçonnet (Brissonnet) to Rousseau ''
Unfortunately for me, there is nothing to indicate that this sale of hair was made by wigmakers. This is most likely, in my opinion, but there is no textual confirmation to confirm it.
On the other hand, I can calculate the amount owed by Noël Rousseau to François Briçonnet: 143 livres and 4 sols. It is a considerable sum knowing that the annual salary of a stable boy is estimated between 60 and 66 livres in the middle of the eighteenth century. It's a big sum, no wonder Rousseau tried to appeal in this case.
12. A wig maker sues another wigmaker for the sum of 33 livres for unpaid hair, from December 16 to 22, 1755
Sentence rendue dans le procès entre Laurent Michaud, perruquier de Québec, comparant par maître Decharnay, et le nommé Lasalle, aussi perruquier, le demandeur exigeant du défendeur la somme de 33 livres pour les cheveux qu'il lui-même a vendu et les dépens, et le tribunal condamnant ladite Lasalle à payer au demandeur la somme due et les dépens liquidés à 5 livres, et à exploiter la signification de ladite phrase audit de la peine Lasalle
'' Sentence rendered in the trial between Laurent Michaud, Quebec wig maker, appearing by Maître Decharnay, and the named Lasalle, also wig maker, the plaintiff demanding from the defendant the sum of 33 livres for the hair that he himself sold and costs, and the court ordering said Lasalle to pay the plaintiff the sum due and costs settled at 5 livres, and to exploit the meaning of said sentence in the Lasalle sentence ''
A hair transaction between wig makers! If we rely on the ratio given in the previous document (there is still 32 years difference between the two documents) the wig maker Lasalle would have bought for a pound and ten ounces of hair.
In conclusion, what this research made it possible to confirm: the wigmakers of New France also shaved the beard of their customers, they could exercise several trades (merchant and wigmaker, soldier and wigmaker), they received orders for new wigs and wig repair orders, they used hair for their wigs. Sometimes the wig maker requests a deposit to make the wig, sometimes he delivers a wig without being paid immediately.
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| Le perruquier fatigué Giovanni David 1775 National Gallery of Art (NGA), Washington |
There are, however, several logistical aspects that remain to be clarified for the wigmakers of New France, especially with regard to the hair used. Did the wigmakers use French networks, those described in the Art du perruquier by M. de Garsault, or did they develop their own network in North America with the famous Native American `` scalps '' .
Mlle Canadienne
